S S Mudholkar, (1983), observed that one way of assessing creativity in executives would be to look at the nature of the decisions they make. Thus, Mudholkar is implicitly noting the strength of creativity as a problem-solving technique, which may be applied as much to decision making as to anything else. Executives in creative organizations exhibit creativity at two levels. At the first level, they use their specialised expertise to come up with creative output. At the other level, they use creative problem-solving techniques to make decisions outside their area of expertise. As Lattimer and Winitsky (1984), point out "creativity is becoming an essential ingredient in organizational problem-solving analysis."

Nonetheless, researchers have inquired only into specific aspects of organizational creativity. These specific aspects have been well-researched and include the creative person (Barron, 1972; Drevdahl and Cattell, 1958; MacKinnon, 1961; Maslow, 1959); the creative process (Barron and Welsh, 1952; Beittel, 1963; Mednick, 1962; Olton, 1979; Taylor, 1959); the creative product (Michael, 1968; Rhyme, 1973; Rossman, 1964); and the environment (Domino, 1969; Mackler and Shoutz, 1965; Weisberg and Springer, 1961). However, as Sladeczek and Domino (1985) have in this context noted, "though many have delved into the research of creativity activity, they have virtually ignored the issue of creativity in business."

Gueraid, (1936), argued that the words 'creative act' apply "at the same time to the creative urge, to the process through which that urge is manifested, to the material result of the process, and to the appreciation of the result. These are different aspects of the same reality." Gueraid is one of the few researchers who have drawn attention to the holistic nature of creativity.

The following sampling of various definitions of creativity by eminent scholars in the field will highlight the lack of attention given so far to the organizational context. Koestler's, (1964), definition which is considered a classic is based on the notion of 'bisociation' -- "The perceiving of a situation or ideas in two self-consistent but habitually incompatible frames of reference." These frames, Koestler called 'matrices'. A matrix is "any ability, habit, or skill, any pattern of behaviour governed by a 'code of fixed rules'. Creativity in itself involves the bisociation, or the simultaneous perception of one idea, object or situation in terms of two matrices." Thus, for example, when the late Dr Vikram Sarabhai observed that people in Ahmedabad did not have any creative outlets for their leisure time, and founded a community science centre, he was bisociating a matrix concerning an unfulfilled community need with another matrix concerning ways of creatively using leisure time.

The definition of creativity according to Jung, (1966), depended on the principle of synchronicity or "the simultaneous occurrence of two meaningful, but not causally connected events." Edwards and Sproull, (1984), aver that "creativity can be described as the process of identifying a problem that was previously unrecognized, or finding a solution that is novel or outside the experience of others."

Simon, (1985), has said simply that creativity is "thinking writ large."

According to our definition, organizational creativity is more than a collection of creative individuals. Our contention is that organizational creativity is distinctive enough to merit separate research in this area, but is sufficiently related to the notion of creativity at the level of the individual to be enriched by studies undertaken in this regard.

Creativity's linkages with a few dimensions of organizational behaviour

In this section, we examine the literature on creativity at the individual level, with the express purpose of ascertaining which properties of organizations are likely to affect or be affected by creativity.

Attributes of organizational members, especially with regard to their creative capabilities, appears to be a dimension having a bearing on organizational creativity. The work of Motley and Silver, (1977), seems to indicate this. According to these researchers, the making of a movie is a creative venture. Hence, successful film directors select actors who possess creative capabilities. The creative capabilities which have special significance for the film industry are professional competence and style, stamina, patience, and willingness to follow instructions, ability to remain spontaneous after ten takes of the same line of dialogue, and capacity to endure stress and fatigue.Additionally, creative individuals appear to be able to deal efficiently with the ambivalences inherent in creative endeavours such as the need to transit between divergent thinking and convergent thinking. Sinetar,(1985), stipulates that "typically creative people deal with ambiguity and change and that is a prerequisite for success intoday's fast-paced business world."

McKinnon, (1961), has listed certain attributes which creative people are supposed to possess. These include a lack of restraints and inhibitions, independence and autonomy in working, a tendency to construct and express views that are unusual and unconventional, an inclination to display flexibility in thought processes, and a certain femininity in interests. Khandwalla, (1988), has recorded the following attributes as having been judged by experts to be found in creative personalities: courage and independence, risk-taking, persistence, self-sufficiency, inquisitiveness and complexity. Kuhn, (1985), suggests that creative personalities tend to be more outward than inward, are independent, active, intense, dominant, competitive, extremely acquisitive or extremely quiescent, subjective and prone to caprice.

We, therefore, propose, a priori, that members of more creative organizations are more likely to be imbued with creative capabilities than members of median organizations. Such members are likely to manifest considerable capacity for divergent thinking, as reflected in their propensity to be fluent, flexible and original.These three propensities have been suggested by Arieti as being indispensable for divergent thinking and creative endeavour. The culture of an organization appears to be another dimension connected with creativity. Robert Noyce, (1980), has described the organizational culture most appropriate for creativity as being "one which is confident, but not relaxed".

Creativity in Organisations,

Nina Jacob,

Wheeler Publishing, 1998,

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